The Gift of the Nile: Lessons in Sustainability and Challenges from Ancient Egypt

INTRODUCTION

In this article, we will understand the series of events of how the people from ancient Egypt civilization overcame environmental challenges. We will take an overview of the importance of the Nile river during that time and how it helped them in various irrigation methods. We will also learn what were the reasons for decline of economic sustainability in the past and try to avoid them in the present.

NILE FLOODING

The Greek historian Herodotus, observing that the very soil of Egypt had been formed by river sediment, pronounced Egypt the "gift of the Nile”. Everything that Egypt needed to sustain and flourish was provided by the Nile. The great Nile inundation called AKHET occurred in Egypt every year during July, the level of the Nile began to rise, and by August end , the flood reached its full height. At the end of October, the flood began to recede, leaving behind a fairly uniform deposit of silt as well as lagoons and streams that became natural reservoirs for fish. By April, the Nile was at its lowest level and the vegetation started to diminish, seasonal pools dried out, and wildlife began to move south. Then in July, the Nile would rise again, and the cycle was repeated. The Nile caused the great productivity of the soil, for it annually brought a copious deposit of rich silt from the monsoon-swept tableland of Ethiopia, since very little rainfall was received in Egypt not much more than the falls received at present so drinking water, washing water, water for crops and animals, all of it came from the Nile.

AGRICULTURE & IRRIGATION

The marshy and wet terrains were suitable for fishing, hunting, and gathering but not for agriculture. Egyptians divided the year into 3 seasons according to the agricultural cycle: the season of inundation (Axt), the season of growth (Prt), and the season of harvest (Smw). Although the water supply was inconsistent depending on the size of the Nile flood, Egyptians adopted basin irrigation, enabling them to establish a civilization whose main economic activity was agriculture. The convenience of basin irrigation was that no additional watering was necessary for a winter yield of wheat, barley, or flax. There was no need to add fertilization because the silt was full of organic matter and minerals. This technique didn't require additional watering for winter yield of wheat, barley, or flax. Mew-er Lake also known as Lake Maoeris was created to store the excess water during a high flood and to provide water for irrigation when there is insufficient water other than that canals, dams, dykes were also created to store water.

For storing grains, they used granaries that were square: a free-standing structure, entered via a single door. It has a courtyard and, along the back wall, the main storage area, consisting of bins with moveable hatches. Each was meant to contain a different kind of grain. Ancient Egypt used mechanical methods for protecting their grains, farmers practiced sun-drying their produce before storing them to protect them because heat activated the insect's life cycle, reduced moisture, and minimized infestations. Silos, sealed pottery jars, and underground barns were some storage methods that served as primitive fumigation chambers due to less oxygen.

RELIGION AND THE NILE

During the ancient civilization all these activities were associated with the act of God and were offered prayers . “Hapi”was the god of the Nile. Bearer of fertility, though male, was portrayed with breasts to show his power to nurture. He was called "Father of the Gods" because so many of them depended on the Nile for offerings, or for their very existence. For example, he suckled Osiris, helping to resurrect him, a myth that stands for the reliance of vegetation on the Nile flood. So when the flood came to its appropriate level, people rejoiced at the advent. The annual cycle of flood, planting, harvest, and fallow was expressed as the birth, growth, death, dismemberment, burial, and resurrection of Osiris , the God of agriculture. Each stage of the year reflected an event in his life.

LAND MEASUREMENT & LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The annual Nile inundation often obliterated field boundaries necessitating regular remeasurement of agricultural land. This process was essential for tax collection and land ownership records. To re-establish these boundaries Egyptian surveyors, known as "harpedonaptae" or "rope stretchers", employed ropes with knots at regular intervals to measure land. This method ensured consistency and accuracy in redefining property lines.

Although no comprehensive legal code has been found, ancient Egyptian law was deeply rooted in the concept of Ma'at, representing truth, balance, and order. It represented an ideal state of harmony and balance in the universe. This principle guided legal decisions and societal norms. The absence of a formalized land code suggests that land measurement and ownership practices were governed by customary laws and administrative procedures aligned with Ma'at.

CHALLENGES OF NILE FLOODING

Yet the Nile was not always that generous for a period of 7 years Egypt was flooded and for the period of next 7 years it had an arid climate which resulted in dire consequences. An insufficient flood meant that the water did not reach all arable land, often resulting in famine and civil unrest. On the other hand, overflooding could destroy infrastructure, wipe out livestock, and breed pestilence and disease.

To gauge this Nilometres were developed which were considered sacred and were used to monitor and predict these annual floods. The evidence of their use can be dated back to 5000 years, with inscriptions mentioning them from time to time. A very recent discovery has been found at Thymus present day (Tell Timai) built in the 3rd century BC. The priest monitored them daily during flood seasons and celebrated when water reached flood levels opening the floodgates.

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Recycling stones, metals, and wood was one done to lower the consumption of natural resources and reduce waste by reusing and repurposing the objects. Stone was used as a recycling building material which was motivated by cost and the desire of the king. Metals were valuable and easily melted and recycled into new materials for eg, copper chisels used by tomb workers. Because of the need for good quality wood, it was reused like the tomb of new coffins was made from the wood of older coffins.

REASONS FOR DECLINE

There were dangers to sustainability like salinization, deforestation, overdevelopment, and bad air quality that caused cancer. The realization that occurred due to the accumulation of salts in the soil caused a hindrance in plant growth which also resulted in deforestation. To support an ever-increasing population ancient farmers had to remove vast forests of fig, jujupa, acacia, and other wetland plants. Pastoring contributed further to deforestation since cattle consumed even smaller natural trees. Air pollution is primarily from activities like cooking, heating quarrying, and building. Lack of clearance of waste resulted in smell pollution causing a lot of diseases. The Edwin Smith Papyrus describes 8 cases of breast tumors that were removed by cauterization. Although cancer was known in ancient Egypt, the risk of cancer was estimated to be 100 times less than in modern societies. Research on Egyptian mummified lungs has revealed evidence of particulates, tiny microscopic particles that irritate the lungs. This suggests that Egyptians were exposed to air pollution thousands of years ago.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the Nile was a major source for irrigation, agriculture as well as other economic purpose in the ancient Egyptian civilizations. Every year Nile had an inundation which helped in the concentration of silt and greater productivity of soil but also posed challenges that required practical solutions. All the activities related to agriculture and other economic purposes were associated with god and though there were no established regulations the concept of Ma’at helped embodied a sense of balance and order. Though the Nile was not always that generous people started facing various challenges like salinization, overflooding, and air pollution that caused famine and cancer among the masses which resulted in the decline of the Egyptian civilization. We can learn from the environmental mishaps and how the Egyptians handled these situations and apply them in today's time to effectively manage the environmental deterioration that today's generation is facing.

REFERENCES

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2. J. Donald Hughes, Sustainable Agriculture in Ancient Egypt, Vol. 66, Agricultural History,1992
3. Nicklas Failla, Over Three Thousand Years of Environmental Sustainability within Ancient Egypt, Colorado State University,2014
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(Last visited:18 Oct, 2024)